Although the general public hasn’t heard much about it, the EPA is preparing to issue so-called “Tier 3” regulations on automakers and refiners, which are even more stringent than the “Tier 2” standards announced in 1999 and fully implemented in 2006. As usual, EPA hasn’t given a satisfactory justification for the tightening of the standards. One study conservatively estimates Tier 3 would impose an upfront compliance cost on refiners of almost $10 billion, and would permanently raise refinery costs 6 to 9 cents per gallon.