SEPTEMBER SPECIAL: BULBS ARE BRIGHT IDEAS

This past spring driving had an added pleasure for those travelling through Toronto's intersection of the Don Valley Parkway, Highway 401 westbound and Highway 404. A typical spaghetti junction had become enlivened by blooming masses of narcissus and red tulips. A special bulb-planting machine from Caroline de Vries' TradeWinds International Sales in Mississauga, Ontario, undertook the task on behalf of the provincial Ministry of Transportation. A year earlier, Ms. De Vries had undertaken a similar planting project further south down the Don Valley Parkway, that time with massed narcissus. You can't beat bulbs for a spring display.

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What is a bulb anyway? Are there not other root storage organs such as corms, tubers and rhizomes? Absolutely right, Watson and it might added, if you eat some it will be alimentary. However, in horticulture, collectively they are all referred to as 'bulbs.' Enough, already. Let us get down to gardening.

HANDY HINTS

• When purchasing bulbs, the larger the bulb the better the flower; 'bargain basement' bulbs produce smaller blooms, or none at all. 'You pays your silver and you takes your choice.'
• Never purchase bulbs that have the slightest signs of mould on them
• All bulbs look better planted in clumps of odd numbers irregularly spaced; spreading a small number over a large area will be far less effective.
• Smaller and earlier blooming bulbs need to be planted as early as possible, as do all daffodils and narcissus
• Tulips can be planted right up to the ground freezes--if you are not particular on varieties wait until late sales at garden centres
• Plant scented flowering bulbs such as hyacinths, muscari and certain narcissi close to doors and walkways used daily to appreciate their scent as well as beauty.
• Early flowering bulbs especially should be planted close to frequently used pathways so they can be easily viewed regardless of weather.

SQUIRRELS

Siberian squill and narcissus bulbs are poisonous to squirrels and other rodents--and they know it. Imperial Fritillaria bulbs are disliked by rodents and protect closely surrounding bulbs from attack. Chicken wire spread over bulb beds will prevent attacks from squirrels; remove in spring when the first shoots appear City parks departments spread pruned deciduous twiggy branches over bulb beds in fall; squirrels are scared of being trapped under the cover by dogs; remove in spring when first shoots appear According to Dugald Cameron of Gardenimport.com, Allium are "not very appealing to deer and squirrels while Crocus tomasinianus and Snowdrops (Galanthus) are "squirrel resistant." He also says "squirrels don't like" Puschkinia or species Tulips. Do commercial repellents work? Prefer to try your own? Something called "Mark's recipe for skunks, raccoons, squirrels, etc." was passed on by Mrs. J. Gobbett of Toronto. It calls for 1 bulb garlic, 1 chopped onion, 2 tablespoons Tabasco, 2 tablespoons cayenne pepper, 2 or 3 drops oil, 1 tablespoon dish detergent, 1 litre water; liquefy all ingredients in a blender and spray on affected area. If all else fails, you might find solace in the knowledge that British supermarkets sell the meat as a specialty

HOW LOW CAN YOU GO?

A rule of thumb is that the smaller, earlier planted bulbs go down two to three times as deep as their size. Larger bulbs such as tulips, daffodils and hyacinths usually call for four to six inches of cover. These suggestions seem to have arisen, however, in areas milder than most of Canada--and perhaps not plagued by squirrels. Here, to avoid attack by pests and disease plus additional winter protection, eight and even ten inches deep will help. And tulips, especially notorious for their failure to flower in subsequent seasons, are more likely to surrender their charms following such cavalier treatment. The following is intended as a guide only; some, for example, Allium and Fritillaria, depth will depend on the species. And in all instances, type of soil must be considered: shallower in heavy, clay-based loams, deeper in sandy soils. Allium 2 to 10 Camassia 4 to 6 Chionodoxa 2 to 3 Colchicum 2 to 4 Crocus 3 to 4 Cyclamen 1 to 2 Eranthis 2 to 3 Erythronium 2 to 3 Fritillaria 3 to 10 Galanthus 2 to 3 Hyacinth 4 to 6 Iris 2 to 4 Leucojum 2 to 3 Lilies 4 to 10 Muscari 2 to 3 Narcissus 4 to 10 Ornithogalum 3 to 6 Scilla 2 to 3 Trillium 3 to 4 Tulips 4 to 10

HEAVEN-SCENT BLOOMS

TULIPS

Apricot Parrot--Parrot tulip: apricot rose with yellow highlights and green streaks Angleque--Double Late Peony tulip: shades of pink Ballerina--Lily Flowered tulip: orange, long-lasting Brown Sugar--Triumph tulip: carmine rose, apricot edged Christmas Marvel--Single Early tulip: cherry pink Daydream--flowers open yellow, turning orange Monte Carlo--Double Early tulip: sulphur yellow, slightly fringed petals Princess Irene--Triumph tulip: orange, pale purple flame

NARCISSUS

Baby Boomer--yellow, strong fragrance Baby Moon--yellow Bell Song--ivory, pink cup Carlton--two-toned yellow Cheerfulness- creamy Dickcissel--yellow, white cup Double Tête-à-Tête--yellow Erlicheer--white, yellow flecks Fruit Cup--greenish white petals, yellow corona Geranium--white and orange Jetfire--yellow, red-orange cup, early blooming Kedron--bronze yellow, orange cup Kokopelli--yellow jonquil Lemon Beauty--lemon yellow with white petals Martinette--golden yellow, orange cup Minnow - yellow New Baby--white, dark yellow cup Peach Swirl--white, orange centre Pheasant's Eye (Original Poet's Daffodil)--white deep red rimmed yellow cup Quail--bronze golden yellow Replete--full double pink Sun Disc--cream, yellow cup Thalia--white Tresemble--ivory white, cream trumpet Yellow Cheerfulness

OTHERS

Crocus: Golden Yellow--rich yellow Cyclamen: C. cilicium--rose pink fading to light pink Cyclamen: C. hederifolium--pink with red centre Fritillaria persica --deep violet-purple on 3-foot spike Ipheion uniflorum Rolph Fiedler Lily: Casa Blanca--bright white Muscari armeniacum --'grape hyacinth,' royal blue

WHERE TO FIND THEM

No list can be all-inclusive and that which follows includes those offered by wholesalers to Canadian independent garden centres. Bulb fanatics already know where to search for more rarified offerings--often only available online. Then there are such mail order firms such as the justifiably famed Gardenimport ( gardenimport.com) of Richmond Hill, Ontario. But probably no one garden centre has space for everything, or the desire to stock such. Be prepared to spend time on the phone before travelling.

ALLIUM

Garden retailers sell us alliums since they may know their onions but labelling these Liliaceae thus is unlikely to score sales points. There are about 700 Allium species from America, Europe and Asia, most abundantly in the latter. Rather unsurprisingly, their foliage smells of well, onions, when crushed. But the flowers may be surprisingly sweetly scented. Some are important food and flavouring crops: onions themselves and shallots (A. cepa), leeks (A. porrum), garlic (A. sativum), chives (A. schoenoprasum). The last, with its purple flowers, makes an attractive edging plant in itself either for the perennial border or vegetable garden. In one of mankind's most ancient of tales, Ulysses is given the sacred plant Allium moly, to protect him against the goddess Circe's drugged potion. Robert Graves in The Greek Myths points out that Allium moly was believed to grow when the moon waned, "rather than when it waxed, and hence to serve as a counter-charm against Hecate's moon magic," says Ernle Bradford in his Ulysses Found (1963). Golden garlic is still a good choice for the garden, enchantresses or not. The ornamental forms do best in full sun, given a well-drained, open soil where they tend to flower in late spring extending even into early summer. A. aflatunense tall, metre-high stems with purple flowerheads in late spring A aflatunense 'Purple Sensation' giant form with violet-purple blooms A. caeruleum (syn. A. azureum) a beautiful clear blue; plant close together for best effect A. cernuum self-seeds A. christophil (syn. A. albopilosum) amethyst pink A. flavum Small Yellow Onion, native from Central Europe to Asia Minor: yellow, deliciously scented blooms on foot-high stems A. giganteum Giant Onion, the original, classic form with blue-purple blooms top stems almost six-feet tall; blooms in late spring A. g. 'Globemaster' violet-purple hybrid, long-lasting 10-inch flowers top five-foot-plus stems A. karataviense lavender-coloured blooms, spring-blooming native of central Asia A. moly Moly, Yellow Onion, Lily Onion, Lily Leek, Golden Garlic, originally from the Mediterranean area, the 'moly' of classical literature; bright yellow flowers emerging somewhat later that most other alliums on 10-inch stems; popular, easily established as it self-seeds A. neapolitanum Daffodil Garlic, Naples Garlic, Flowering Garlic; another from the Mediterranean area extending into Turkey; prolific three-inch white flowers in clusters on 10-inch stems in spring; good container specimen but may require some mulching in northern zones. A. oreophilum pink flowers on 10-inch stems in late spring A. ostrowskianum originates in Central Asia, small but with attractive star-shaped, deep pink blooms A. sphaerocephalon Round-headed Garlic has ornamental dark purple to crimson blooms in July and edible bulbs; better yet, the bulblets that follow the blooms are an attractive red; native to Europe, Asia Minor, North Africa The Wild or Native Onions: These tend to become weedy, invasive and while possible attractive especially to those native flower enthusiasts, have extremely strongly scented (and flavoured) bulbs Allium canadense Canada Garlic, Wild Garlic, Meadow Leek, Rose Leek; white to pink flowers in very late spring, the bulb was relished by native Americans Allium cernuum Nodding Onion, Lady's Leek; pink to white flowers on an 18-inch stem bent at the top, which causes the flower head to nod; mid-summer blooming Allium stellatum Wild Onion; prairies east to Ohio with lavender blooms on two-foot stems in midsummer Allium tricoccum Wild Leek; white flowers on six- to 18-inch stems emerge in early summer after the foliage has died back Allium vineale Crow Garlic, False Garlic, Stag's Garlic, Field Garlic; pink or white flowers on stems up to 3 feet tall, late spring to early summer; according to one tradition, Chicago received its name from the native name for this allium owing to many being found growing there.

CAMASSIA

Camas gains its name from the North American Indian name, quamash. It is less often called Bear Grass. Usually classed with the Lily Family (Liliaceae), some botanists--a querulous lot--choose to lump them under the Hyacinthaceae. These are large bulbs from British Columbia and the northwest Pacific States, growing in damp meadows. As interest in native plants continues to surge, Camassia has become a better-known spring garden flower, blooming about the same time as tulips. They require planting up to six inches deep in a deep, rich loam. Camassia cusickii--Cusick's camas, large, blue, star-shaped flowers, yellow anthers, 90 cm C. leichtlinii--giant camas, dark blue, yellow anthers, 60 cm Camassia quamash (syn. C. esculenta)--the commonest species in cultivation, with violet-blue blooms, 30 cm tall; large quantities were dug and consumed by native peoples but best not before roasting as they can cause, as Joe Arnett ( nanps.org) records that the American explorer Captain Lewis eloquently noted: "when in the Indian hut I was almost blown out by the strength of the wind." Camassia scillioides (syn. C. fraseri)--Wild Hyacinth, blue flowers, native to eastern North America, as far north as Ontario, rarely seen in cultivation

GLORY-OF-THE-SNOW, CHIONODOXIA

Appropriately named, Glory-of-the-Snow, Chionodoxa luciliae, is one of the earliest spring bulbs to flower. In fact, it often lives up to its popular name, pushing through a late snowfall with deep blue flowers becoming white in their centre. Like all its few relations, it hails from western Turkey and Crete. Just four to five inches high, planted in drifts near the front door or well-travelled path two or three inches deep, it will slowly multiply. May also be naturalized in lawns. Chionodoxa luciliae Glory-of-the-Snow; see above C. l. 'Gigantea' taller, light blue flowers C. l. 'Rosea' a pink form whose colour tends to 'wash out'

AUTUMN CROCUS, COLCHICUM

The Autumn Crocus, also somewhat titilatingly known in Britain as Naked Ladies, less so Meadow Saffron, Dainty Maidens or Naked Boys, botanically is Colchicum autumnale. Depending upon which taxonomist you agree with, it is one of 45 to 65 species, all arising from a corm that may be found from eastern Europe to North Africa to western Asia and northern India. They received their name after Colchicus on the southern coast of the Black Sea. While planted in autumn, they bloom as hinted by their popular name, at that time of year, although the foliage emerges earlier but disappears prior to the corm bursting into bloom. This explains the British name of Naked Ladies. Another name however, Meadow Saffron, could result serious poisoning. The plant found use medically for some two thousand years. Studied by Ancient Greeks, Romans, Islamic physicians, Italian, French and English doctors of numerous diseases it is poisonous in all its parts--enough, noted the late Professor Roy Porter, "to kill a sheep or cow." Despite this from the late 18^th-century it was used by such notable suffers of gout as George, Prince Regent, later George IV of Britain. Roy Porter continues the tale: In 1820, French chemists discovered the active ingredient, the alkaloid colchicine. This remained unrivalled for its effective and rapid control of pain in acute gout until the advent of allopurinol in 1963 (Gout: The Patrician Malady by Roy Porter, Yale, 1998). Autumn crocus are desperate to burst into bloom--plant as soon as they arrive in the stores. Even if they burst into bloom before planting, they will still survive to flower another year if installed immediately. Colchicum agrippinum of garden origin according to Hyam & Pankhurst (1995); a vigorous sterile hybrid of Colchicum variegatum x C. autumnale. Colchicum autumnale Autumn Crocus with flowers or pink, purple, white that appear almost artificial; many cultivars available; a novelty is to place the corm on a desk and it will bloom without further attention, not even water--although the chances of future flowering may be exhausted by such brutal treatment. Colchicum bivonae (syn. C. bowlesianum) from southern Europe to southwestern Turkey; blooms are large, pink checkered purple (Hyam & Pankhurst 1995) Colchicum byzantium another cultivar of garden origin with pinkish-purple blooms Colchicum cilicicum native to Asia Minor and the Levant with pinkish-purple blooms Colchicum luteum yellow flowers appear spring through summer in this species which ranges from central Asia through Afghanistan and northern India even into southwest China

CROCUS

Finally, a plant that has the same popular and botanical name: Crocus. According to authorities on the matter, crocus is from the Greek krokos, saffron, in turn derived from Hebrew karkon. However, the saffron crocus, C. sativus, is fall flowering and unknown in the wild. It probably came from the wild saffron crocus, C. cartwrightianus, from southern Greece with mauve, lilac or white dark-veined flowers. The species, which gave rise to our modern cultivars range from Europe east into central Asia. Those commonly planted today include favourites such as 'Blue Pearl'--blue outside, cream inner; 'Golden Yellow'--rich yellow and fragrant; and 'Snow Bunting'--white with a golden centre. The corms of select species are often to be found in garden centres in fall below attractive colour photographs of their blooms. However, those were attained by pushing the camera lens down the poor crocus's private parts the flowers in fact are considerably smaller than those of the cultivars and tend to open wider. Nevertheless, for the bulb enthusiast they offer very real value and joy. Crocus cartwrightianus Wild Saffron, flowers mauve, lilac or white and dark-veined; flowers the following fall from planting, which must be undertaken with fresh corms as soon as they are purchased Crocus chrysanthus often offered as a species, but also parent to a number of fine cultivars; light yellow, early spring blooming, originating from the Balkans. Crocus flavus another popular species crocus from the Balkans with gold-yellow, scented flowers C. sativus, Saffron Crocus, unknown as a wild plant, and source of the world's most expensive #; flowers the following fall from planting, which must be done with fresh corms as soon as purchased; hardy with care up to the Toronto area and beyond into Zone 4, but at least six corms required to yield enough saffron for a decent dish; it takes about 4000 flowers provide some 30g. C. vernus Crocus; source of modern cultivars, purple, blue, yellow, white, originating from central and southeastern Europe Autumn Blooming Crocus: C. cartwrightianus--pale lilac with darker veins C. kotschyanus--rose pink, yellow centre C. speciosus--pale lilac, excellent for naturalization C. s. albus--ivory white

CYCLAMEN

"The flowers grew wild everywhere, bee-orchids, wild blue irises and cyclamen. Ulysses would have seen the cyclamen if he had been here in the springtime of the year, " recorded sailor and author Ernle Bradford of Trapani, Sicily, following his hero in Ulysses Found (1963). More gardeners are familiar with the large-flowered florists cyclamen, or C. persicum, the parent to many cultivars. Originating from North Africa and the Balkans, the flowers range from reds through pinks to whites, some even frilled and almost resembling orchids. The foliage is marked with white or silver. However, there is a hardy form, native from the Mediterranean to Iran that was known to the Greeks as kyklos from the circular leaves, hence our cyclamen. A less attractive common name for Cyclamen hederifolium is Sowbread. The dainty pink fall-blooming flowers have a red centre. Prefers light shade with rich soil that dries out over summer. Plant an inch deep, three or four inches apart. According to Gardenimport, it is "hardy to zone 5 with protection." The corm was formerly considered a cure for baldness when used as snuff (Hyam & Parker 1995). Cyclamen persicum Florists Cyclamen; strictly for indoors and usually offered during winter, it prefers cool temperatures and bright light but not direct sunlight. Keep evenly moist but not soaking. As the blooms fade, remove carefully, taking care not to tear the corm they rise from. Treat dead foliage in the same manner. Allow to rest over summer and early fall with the soil dry then commence watering gently to repeat.

WINTER ACONITE, ERANTHIS

One of our earliest spring-blooming bulbs--okay, technically a rhizome--the bright yellow flowers may push up through a March snowfall. The commonest form offered is Eranthis hiemalis, originating in southern Europe through southwest Asia, but naturalized in North America. Other species extend this range eastwards into Syria. The flowers are just four to six inches tall over soft green, seven-part leaves and last for weeks. Plant two inches deep, three inches apart.

TROUT LILY, ERYTHRONIUM

Also known as the Amberbell, Dog's Tooth Violet or Adder's Tongue, most are native to North America, although one species extends from Europe across northern Asia. These have not received the attention they deserve although with the expanding interest in native species, more garden centres are stocking them. Still, the enthusiast will probably have to search far this fall for Erythronium. These delightful flowers are naturally at home at the edges of woodlands in well-drained but consistently moist humus-rich soil. Plant two inches deep, and the same distance apart and cover with a generous mulch of dead leaves. Erythronium albidum White Trout Lily; similar to E. americanum (see following entry) white, sometimes with a yellow centre and violet on the back of petals; leaves in pairs, rarely with markings, basal, paired, seldom mottled; flowers in spring over east-central North America E. americanum Trout Lily, Yellow Adder's Tongue; bright yellow flowers over mottled, paired leave in moist woodlands from Nova Scotia through Ontario into Minnesota and south to Florida E. dens-canis Dog's Tooth Violet; gains its common name from the shape of the bulbs; the pink flowers are found all across northern Eurasia; popular as an ornamental it has been frequently hybridized. According to Hyam and Pankhurst (1995) the bulbs are a source of starch and are eaten with reindeer milk in Siberia and Mongolia. - Hyam & Pankhurst 1995 E. grandiflorum Avalanche Lily; bright yellow flowers with plain green leaves from the Pacific Northwest E. propullans Prairie Trout Lily; small, pale pink blooms only three to six inches tall E. revolutum another species from the west, the pink flowers having yellow centres; several selections available

FRITILLARIA

There are about 100 species of Fritillaria, all native to the temperate northern hemisphere. Members of the lily family, Liliaceae, many are grown as ornamentals along with numerous cultivars. Their botanical name derives from the unusual checkered patterns on the petals of many species--fritillus is Latin for a checkerboard or dice box. While many of the smaller-flowered species, larger forms, such as F. imperialis and F. persica can be temperamental unless given the precise growing conditions they demand. F. camschatcensis Black Sarana; eastern Siberia through Japan into North America with dark purple blooms on 75cm stems F. cirrhosa; unusual green flower surrounded by rings of yellow or purple, native to the Himalayas east into China, where the bulbs are used for traditional medicine, say Wee & Hsuan (1990). F. imperialis Crown Imperial one of the most unusual, spectacular spring-flowering bulbs originating in the western Himalayas through into Turkey: four-foot stems topped by a tuft of pineapple-like leaves below which hand large reddish-orange flower bells; there are also several cultivars of varying colours; the large bulbs are particularly odiferous, depending upon authority smelling of fox, mouse or skunk; said to deter these animals along with squirrels from bulb beds although this seems questionable; needs a deep, rich, moist soil that never dries out without becoming soggy; plant up to 10 inches deep, on its side to prevent water accumulating in the crown and rotting the bulb; these were once used as a source of starch as well as medicinally, according to Hyam and Pankhurst (1995); folklore claims it constantly weeps for refusing to bow down when Jesus passed by. F. lutea-maxima a deep yellow form of F. imperialis with the same cultural requirements F. meleagris Checkered Lily, Guinea Hen Flower, Leper Lily, Snake's Head; with so many common names you may be assured this is a popular bulb, especially for naturalization in meadows and alongside ornamental pools; nodding flowers on stems 12 inches or more high are checkered purple and white but many cultivars are available; as with all Fritillaria, the soil should never be permitted to dry out; native from Britain north to Norway, east through central Europe into the Caucasus F. michailovskyi violet-purple flowers yellow edges F. pallidflora light yellow flowers dotted red inside, native to southern Siberia F. persica Persian Fritillaria; deep violet-purple bell fragrant flowers on metre-tall spike; some gardeners claim it temperamental but needs a deep, rich, moist soil that never dries out without becoming soggy; plant deep, about eight inches on its side to prevent water accumulating in the crown and rotting the bulb F. raddeana highly recommended by Sarah Raven in The Daily Telegraph as one of her choice bulbs for autumn planting F. roylei green flowers, tinged with yellow; another Fritillaria from the Himalayas used medicinally in traditional Chinese medicine F. verticillata thunbergii Thunberg's Fritillary; yet another plant used in Chinese traditional medicine according to Wee & Hsuan (1990)

SNOWDROP, GALANTHUS

"Your snowdrops will be looking at their best now," in February suggests famed English cartoonist Norman Thelwell in one of his brilliant drawings. Yes, but which snowdrop? A dozen or so species are manageable but Hitch Lyman grows some 400 kinds on five acres outside Ithaca, N.Y. at his Temple Nursery, according to Anne Raver in The New York Times. In their native state the species range from Europe through Turkey and Iran into the Caucasus. The common name comes from German Schneetropfen, pendants or earrings fashionable in the 16^th and 17^th centuries, while Galanthus derives from Greek gala, milk, and anthos, flower owing to their white colour. The common snowdrop, G. nivalis, ranges from France as far east as the Caucasus but is beloved in central Europe where its early blooms are welcomed as a harbinger of spring. Plant as early as possible in September in clumps close to a walkway. G. elwesii Giant Snowdrop from the Balkans where it was collected by English naturalist H. J. Elwes (1846-1922), grows to about a foot high with scented blooms that are larger than the common snowdrop and, unlike them, likes dry and sunny in summer in a well-drained soil. G. nivalis Common Snowdrop; like many of its cousins, prefers cool, somewhat shade conditions with a soil that is constantly moist, but never soggy; British folklore regards using them as cut flowers a dire omen; naturalizing easily, they must be lifted and divided every few years but in spring, never in autumn at which time they are making root growth. There an enormous number of named cultivars--Lyman has 250 of them at his Temple Nursery; those inflicted with squirrels, mice, deer and similar calamities will be happy to learn that these animals all avoid the snowdrop.

HYACINTHS

Hyacinths with the strongest scent are those that are blue plus the yellow 'City of Haarlem,' says garden columnist Sarah Raven in The Daily Telegraph. Amongst other hyacinths she particularly favours and likely to be offered by Canadian outlets are the pure white 'Canagie' and 'Jan Bos,' a magenta-pink. The individual flower on the spike is correctly referred to as a 'nail,' she adds. Hyacinths have been blessed by botanists with their own genus--the Hyacinthaceae--and, in the wild, consist of three or four species from the Mediterranean littoral east into central Asia. All these species have blue flowers, which leads us to presume that the youth named by Homer as Hyankinthos must have been blue-blooded indeed. According to Greek mythology, when the god Apollo accidentally killed Hyankinthos the flowers sprang up from his blood. Hyankithos not withstanding, our secular society regards Hyacinthus orientalis as the Dutch Hyacinth, much cultivated for its delicious scent both inside and outdoors. Some of the most widely offered include: Blue Jacket--bright blue City of Haarlem--primrose yellow maturing to ivory Delft Blue--porcelain blue Gypsy Queen--salmon, hint of rose Pink Pearl--dark rose Of all flower bulbs, says the Netherlands Flower Bulb Information Centre, only hyacinths give you a hint as to what the colour of their flowers will be. White and yellow varieties grow from white bulbs, purple and blue varieties from purple bulbs and the pinks and red from slightly lighter purple bulbs. With typical Dutch flare, they suggest it might be a good way to win a friendly bet or two

IRIS

Named after the Greek goddess who came to Earth via a rainbow, iris comprise a mighty genus within the family Iridaceae--some 250 species. There are many, many more cultivars that have arisen from numerous species that are grown for their individual beauty. Complicating things further, cultivated iris are divided into various classifications. Fortunately, when it comes to spring-flowering bulbs, there are but a few to consider. Both are excellent choices for winter forcing and recover well enough to be planted outside after. Iris danfordiae yellow flowers just four inches tall appear the same time as snowdrops; this species has an unfair reputation of being cantankerous, which it is not if given the good drainage and humus-rich soil it adores; a light sprinkle of lime after flowering will be welcomed; it is, though, a very slow colonizer Iris reticulata cousin of the above, slightly taller at about six inches, it follows I. danfordiae into bloom; this small flower is sweetly scented--another reason to plant close to a well-traveled route through the garden; again, it likes some lime in the well-drained, humus-rich soil.

SNOWFLAKE, LEUCOJOM

Familiar to enthusiasts, this later-flowering snowdrop look-alike deserves to be planted more often. There are about 10 species and several cultivars, although most are probably too tender for any but the most salubrious portions of Canada. Like early spring flowering iris, they thoroughly dislike the soil drying out at any time, a consideration when contemplating naturalization as Leucojum are otherwise prime candidates for. The petals, white tipped green, are guaranteed to provoke queries about "late snowdrops." Leucojum aestivum Giant Snowflake, Summer Snowflake; despite the last name, expect these to flower in late spring, half-a-dozen or so flower atop foot-and-a-half stems; blends in well with the more formal tulips or plant in moist woodland locations. Europe, North Africa: small, bulbous plant with basal leaves; nodding bell-shaped, white flowers tipped green, the 6 segments of even length; in late spring. - Graf 1975 Europe east to Turkey and the Caucasus: naturalized or possibly native to the valleys of the Thames and Shannon; to 75cm tall, flowers 2 to 7, green at tips of tepals, seed dispersed by water. - Hyam & Pankhurst 1995 Leucojum vernum Spring Snowflake, native to Europe and naturalized in England, produces eight-inch-high flowers in very early spring so perhaps may be excused for being mistaken for snowdrops by the uninitiated. As with all such early bloomers, locate close to a frequently travelled entranceway for best viewing.

LILIES

An extremely complex group, thanks in no part to hybridizers who continue to expand the available range. In their native ranges from the temperate Northern Hemisphere to the Philippines, there are some 100 species recorded, many still grown in cultivation. Indeed appreciation such dates back to Minoan wall frescoes in Crete that are 5,000 years old. Lilium candidum, native to eastern Mediterranean region, has become so associated with the Virgin Mary that it is now know as the Madonna Lily. It is the familiar today as the Easter Lily of commerce, joining over 7,000 registered hybrids. The vast number--and their technical classifications--will fascinate the specialist gardener. But for most homeowners it will be enough to know that any sold in garden centres this fall will represent a few of the most popular and easily cultured. Worth looking for include: African Queen--orange, brown markings Casa Blanca--bright white, fragrant Lennox--white, long-lasting Pink Perfection--rich pink Fall planted lilies will mostly bloom late the following spring and prefer a sunny location. They thoroughly disturbed being disturbed once planted. The soil should never be allowed to become completely dry. As with all bulbs, the foliage must be permitted remain following flowering in order to feed the bulb below for the next season. Given all these, lilies will multiply in their beds making increasingly spectacular displays for the modest initial investment. Caveat: Some lilies have been reported as fatal to felines. This has been hotly debated in popular media. All parts are said to cause kidney failure in cats, a singe leaf being sufficient to cause death. In England, a Siamese cat died after reportedly brushing against a lily, then licking its fur clean. Just how often such tragedies occur is contested. At least one experienced veterinarian stated he had never encountered a cat being poisoned by a lily. In fact, the Animal Poison Control Center of the American Society for the Prevention of Cruelty to Animals lists around 400 plants poisonous to cats (Landscape Architecture, July 2006)

GRAPE HYACINTH, MUSCARI

These old favourites came to western gardens from Turkey as early as the 16^th-century. Although there are some 60 species only a few are cultivated along with several cultivars. Although a white form blooms earlier, in the main these are midseason bloomers. An excellent choice for bordering walkways they have but one distressing habit for the neophyte gardener--they throw up foliage a few weeks after being planted. Ignore and let nature take its course. And forget about those superstitions claiming it as unlucky in the house: they make an attractive cut flower or a 'forced' bulb. M. armeniacum a magnificent royal blue and as befits such scented bulbs, a member of the Hyacintheae family; eight-inch-tall spikes late April into May, they are equally attractive in borders or in woodland settings, they naturalize readily; perfect for the budget-conscious gardener M. azureum a lighter, sky blue version of the above M. botrioides 'Album' somewhat shorter, less exuberant selection, earlier flowering and, frankly, somewhat disappointing but nevertheless has its admirers M. comosum (syn. M. plumosum) Feather, Tassel, Tufted Grape Hyacinth; light purple or mauve, feathery flowers are decidedly different; although reliable the first spring following planting it may disappear thereafter; still worth a try; if all else fails, the bulbs are edible according to Hyam & Pankhurst.

STAR-OF-BETHLEHEM, ORNITHOGALUM

There are some 80 species of Ornithogalum, found from South and North Africa through Europe into Asia. The gloriously named Chincherinchee, O. thyrsoides, from the Cape Province is unfortunately too tender to survive here in our gardens, as is the Giant Chincherinchee. O. saundersii, both of which are said the have attain their common name from the alleged sound made by their flowers stems rubbing in the wind. Another fascinating but tender form is the so-called Bath Asparagus, O. pyrenaicu, whose edible flower stems were sold in the streets of that western English city of that name in the 19^th-century. The leaves of the tender indoor intriguingly named Pregnant Onion, O. caudatum, are sue din a manner similar to the better known Aloe vera for treating burns and abrasions. Only two species are reliably hardy enough to cultivate here but beware--they can both establish so well as to become positively weedy. Indeed O. umbellatum is listed as having established itself in fields, roadsides, and near houses from Newfoundland to Ontario and south by Roger Tory Peterson in his invaluable A Field Guide to Wildflowers. Ornithogalum nutans Drooping Star of Bethlehem from the Balkans through Asia Minor has white bell-shaped flowers that appear in mid-Spring; does best in light shade in soil rich in organic matter. Ornithogalum umbellatum Star of Bethlehem six-inch high stems bear white flowers with a green streak on the undersides of their petals in mid-Spring; a very undemanding bulb, flourishing just about anywhere with abandon.

SQUILL, SCILLA

Some 90 species of bulbs ranging across Asia into Europe and down into South Africa. Species used in the garden are usually blue, but various selections may be pink or white. The best known in our area is S. sibirica, so familiar that it is often referred to simply as 'Scilla.' Poisonous to squirrels, it naturalizes readily, covering lawns and with a haze of blue in mid-spring. Not to denigrate this wonderful little bulb, but there are two others hardy here that deserve consideration--but they are a source of confusion, thanks in no little part to meddling by taxonomists. Hyacinthoides non-scripta is the botanical name preferred by the Royal Horticultural Society for the beloved English Bluebell; in days gone by it was known as Scilla non-scripta and is still often listed as such in catalogs and elsewhere; taxonomists can't make up their minds whether it either of these, or S. mischtschenkoana, S. nutans or even Endium non-scripta; doubtlessly they are similarly confused over the nomenclature of their fathers; white forms are known to occur but carpets of blue in British woodlands blessed by constantly damp soil are their classic site--they will not tolerate hot, dry exposures and additionally must be planted as soon as they are available; in Britian they are threatened by the more aggressive Spanish Bluebell Hyacinthoides hispanica (syn. Scilla campanulata, S. hispanica), Spanish Bluebell, also comes in white and pink on stems up to 18-inches tall; culture is similar to the English Bluebell and it also colonizes readily in suitable locations. Scilla sibirica Siberian Squill or simply 'Scilla,' forms carpets of a magnificent blue over lawns in which it has been allowed to naturalize, early- to mid-spring; this is the perfect answer to plundering squirrels since the bulbs are toxic to them--and they know it; the catch is that if they are to survive to spread and bloom another season, mowing must be delayed until the foliage has died back some time in late May into early June.

TRILLIUM

Although there are about 30 species of Trillium, it is the White or Large-flowered Trillium. T. grandiflorum, that is beloved of Ontario's residents and both their provincial floral symbol and stylized logo that Ontarians at least envision when Trillium is mentioned. These woodland glories really require a similar location in the home garden--under deciduous trees in rich, well-drained soil that remains moist under a mulch of decomposed leaves. Emerging from what technically is a rhizome, there are some 30 species ranging from eastern North America across the continent and into eastern Asia as far as west as the Himalayas; the plants are often sold in spring, the rhizomes in fall but Asian forms are hard to find while western and southern species usually do poorly in northeastern North America; for further fascination a complete book Trilliums by Frederick W. and Roberta B. Case (1997) or check the bibliography at trilliumresearch.org T. cernuum Nodding Trillium: white flowers hanging below the foliage up to 18 inches tall; native from Newfoundland to Manitoba into eastern U.S. as far south as mountains of Georgia; grows in more acid soils than T. grandiflorum T. erectum Red Trillium, Purple Trillium, Wake Robin, Stinking Benjamin: the last name says it all but despite the smell, there are several ornamental forms for trillium enthusiasts; Peterson describes it as 'liver-red . . . occasionally pink, salmon, green, white, maroon or purplish flower (rarely yellowish or white);' natural habitat ranges from Michigan through Ontario and Quebec down into the northeastern U.S. as far south as the mountains of Georgia; used in folk medicine. T. flexipes Drooping Trillium: another eastern North American species with white or purple flowers held beneath the leaves T. grandiflorum White Trillium, Large-flowered Trillium, Triller Blamc (French), Wake Robin: largest-flowering of all trilliums, white becoming pink as the blooms age to be found in typical maple or mixed deciduous woods from Minnesota east through Ontario down into western New England and south; seeds dispersed by ants; urban legend in Ontario, whose floral emblem it is, that it is illegal to pick the flowers; it is certainly illegal, however, to dig without permission; also floral emblem of Ohio; Hyam & Pankhurst (1995) note that unusual flower mutations often occur in wild plants. T. nivale Snow Trillium, Dwarf White Trillium: very early blooming with two-inch flowers on six-inch stems; west of Appalachian Mountains in the U.S. north into Minnesota T. ovatum Trillium of the West: white blooms in spring turning to purple as they age; as the name indicates, native to western North America, said to be easier to cultivate in eastern gardens than most from that area T. recurvatum Prairie Trillium: purple to green blooms held below foliage on foot-high stems; from Iowa south in central U.S. east into Ohio T. sessile Toadshade, Sessile Trillium: similar to T. recurvatum but purple or yellow-green blooms held above the foot-high foliage; Illinois through Ohio into western New York states and south. T. undulatum Painted Wood Lily: tall, up to 18 inches, flowers white with red to purple centres on moist avoid woods even marshy areas from Manitoba through Ontario into Quebec south through Appalachian Mountains

NARCISSUS

Poet William Wordsworth's golden daffodils in Britain's Lake District failed to impress fellow versifier Ogden Nash. "I ask no cloud of daffodils/But just a cask of sleeping pills, responded the New Yorker. "Treeless they are, the Siren rocks, but not flowerless . . . In the winter months the narcissus dominates; its scent is heavy upon the air and the glossy brown bulbs thrust each other out of the earth . . ." observed Norman Douglas on the islands in the mouth of the Bay of Salerno, Italy. While botanists know the bulbous perennials collectively as Narcissus, horticulturists are wont to divide them into the large-trumpet Daffodils and the short-trumpet, often multi-headed Narcissus. The botanists may have a point here: the plants received their designation from that narcissistic youth of Greek mythology, who was turned into the flower after killing himself because he couldn't reach his reflection in a pool of water. There are some 50 species recognized, ranging from northwestern down through southern Europe into North Africa and the Mediterranean littoral, officially at least. But perhaps they once extended much further east, as the Urdu nargis signifies daffodil. Many of these species and numerous cultivars are grown as ornamentals and for the cut flower trade. A principle attraction for the home gardener is, unlike tulips, of their reliably returning year after year. Given the right location--reasonably fertile, well-drained soil that stays moist without becoming waterlogged, in full sun. There are two caveats with these bubs: plant early in fall and, the following spring, have patience in allowing the foliage to die back naturally. As with most bulbs that naturalize well, avoid formal plantings. Instead scatter in irregular clumps--some advise tossing handfuls over the shoulder to achieve the desired casual appearance. And no need to worry about dread squirrel demolishment--these bulbs are poisonous to them. Narcissus fanciers classify these plants into about a dozen categories, none of which is of great interest to the average homeowner. Sarah Raven of Britain's The Daily Telegraph recommends the new daffodils 'Jenny' and 'Trepolo' as choice bulbs for this autumn's planting. Even more helpful in determining where the shekels will be spent is the judgement of England's fabled Royal Horticultural Society. Let the RHS Award of Garden Merit then be your guide to garden centre selections. While no one outlet is likely to carry all of these, unlike many listings, most if not all of the following should not be hard to find. Accent--white, salmon cup, excellent for naturalizing Baby Boomer--yellow, strong fragrance Carlton--two-toned yellow, fragrant Cheerfulness--creamy, fragrant Dickcissel--yellow, white cup, fragrant Dutch Master--yellow, ruffled edges February Gold--yellow, early flowering Fruit Cup--greenish white petals, yellow corona Gentle Giant--white, orange cup, five-inch flowers Geranium--white and orange, fragrant Ice Follies--creamy white with bright yellow cup Jetfire--yellow, red-orange cup, fragrant Kedron--bronze yellow, orange cup, fragrant Kokopelli--yellow, fragrant Minnow--bright yellow Mint Julep--greenish yellow, yellow cup with deep green eye Mount Hood--white, creamy-yellow trumpet Obvallaris--yellow Pheasant's Eye (Original Poet's Daffodil) white, deep red rimmed yellow cup, scented Quail--bronze golden yellow, fragrant Rijnveld's Early Sensation--yellow, earliest daffodil to bloom Salome--white petals, light yellow trumpet Sir Winston Churchill--double white petals with an orange centre, fragrant Spellbinder--greenish-yellow, white trumpet Sun Disc--white petals, yellow corona Sunnyside Up--yellow to cream petals, peach corona Tamar Fire--yellow with burnt orange centre, long-lasting Thalia--white, fragrant Verona--white on white White Lion--white double with pink, orange and yellow Yellow Cheerfulness--yellow, fragrant

TULIPS

Celebrated in song, symbol of Holland, national flower of Iran, feted at Ottawa's annual Canadian Tulip Festival, these members of the Liliaceae have travelled far from their central Asian base. It was in Persia that they were first appreciated and depicted on tiles. Spreading westward into the Ottoman Empire, they became something of a fad, along with roses, lilacs and other ornamentals. Indeed our name tulip derives from the Turkish tulband, a turban, after the shape of the bulbous blooms. Encountered in Ottoman court of Suleyman the Magnificent by 16^th-century emissaries from Europe, they travelled via Vienna into the sights of Dutch botanist Carolus Clusius (1526-1609). He grew and propagated them in the Leiden Botanical Garden, from whence they were distributed hither and yon to increasing admiration. This reached a climax with the famous Dutch Tulipomania of 1634 and the inevitable crash three years later. Never again would the canny Dutch be deceived. Today, more than 3,500 tulip hybrids and species are commercially propagated there, notes Harry Jongerden, Interim Director of Horticulture, Now @ The Gardens. The Netherlands produces more than 3 billion tulips annually, making tulips the world's most important ornamental flower cash crop. The Dutch have a good deal to thank Clusius and botanical gardens for, Jongerden observes. There is one drawback to these popular spring flowers: their all-too-often to return in subsequent springs for a repeat display. But this needn't be so. If treated with a modicum of respect, the early-blooming tulips in the Greigii, Kaufmanniana and Fosteriana groups are may be relied upon to rebloom. Many of the 100 or so Tulipa species that have been introduced into cultivation lend themselves to naturalization. Perhaps less spectacular than their cultivated cousins, the blooms last far longer, tolerate vagaries of weather and return year after year if planted in light, well-drained soil. Garden columnist Sarah Raven for The Daily Telegraph recommended the following species or wild tulips. Any will repay the search for them: Tulipa biflora Tulipa bifloriformis Tulipa clusiana Tulipa dasystemon Tulipa humilis Tulipa inifolia Tulipa orphanidea Tulipa sprengerii Tulipa sylvestris Tulipa turkestanea What of the many other tulips? Many are offered, few persist. Once again it is worth turning to the advice of England's Royal Horticultural Society and their Award of Garden Merit for those that have made the grade. Andre Rieu--Single Late tulip: purplish pink Angelique--Double Late Peony tulip: shades of pink, fragrant Apricot Parrot--Parrot tulip: apricot rose with yellow highlights and green streaks, fragrant Ballerina--Lily Flowered tulip: orange, fragrant, long-lasting Black Parrot--Parrot tulip: lavender blue, hints of violet Blue Heron--Fringed tulip: violet blue white fringed Cayenne--Triumph tulip--red-brown with golden edge China Town--Viridiflora tulip: pink, edged cream, streaked green Day Dream--Perennial tulip: flowers open yellow, turning orange Don Quichotte--Triumph tulip: rose pink, hints of purple Dreamland--Single Late tulip: dark rose, flash of creamy white Fantasy--Parrot tulip: salmon pink, green streaks, white flames Fringed Elegance--Fringed tulip: primrose yellow edged red Happy Generation--Triumph tulip: white with red flame up middle of each petal Innuendo--Triumph tulip: pastel pink with magenta edges Ivory Floradale--Perennial tulip: huge ivory blooms slightly spotted red Juan--Fosteriana tulip: orange, yellow base; purple striped foliage Kingsblood--Single Late tulip: cherry-red, long lasting Lemon Ice--Triumph tulip: bright lemon yellow Lilac Wonder--Tulipa bakeri: species tulip: lilac, yellow centre Little Beauty--Species tulip: pink, blue centre Maureen--Single Late tulip: creamy white Monte Carlo--Double Early tulip: sulphur yellow, slightly fringed petals Ollioules--Perennial tulip: dark rose, silvery white edge Olympic Flame--Perennial tulip: golden yellow with blood red Orange Bouquet--Bouquet tulip: red-orange 4 to 6 flowers per stem Orange Emperor--Fosteriana tulip: orange Oxford--Darwin Hybrid tulip: scarlet red, yellow base Parade--Perennial tulip: bright red, yellow base Pink Impression--Perennial tulip: large pink/rose flowers Pink Star - Double Late Peony tulip: magenta rose with soft yellow edges Play Girl--Triumph tulip: white with strawberry brushed edges Princess Irene--Triumph tulip: orange, pale purple flame, fragrant Red Impression--Perennial tulip: opens rose-red, turning ruby red Red Riding Hood--Greigii tulip: scarlet Sky High--Single Late tulip: tall red Showwinner--Kaufmanniana: cardinal red, yellow anthers, motled foliage Spring Green--Viridiflora tulip: white with green stripes Synaeda King--Lily Flowered tulip: red, yellow edges Tulipa tarda --Species tulip: yellow white edge inside, white and purple outside Toronto--Bouquet tulip: salmon pink, multiple flowers per stem, purple mottles foliage West Point--Lily Flowered tulip: primrose yellow World Peace--Darwin Hybrid tulip: pink-peach with yellow edges